Notes on C language

Notes on C language




From: Prof Saroj KaushikCSE dept, IIT DelhiStructure of C program

#include <stdio.h>

/* Include files for input/output functions*/

#define const_name value

/* constant declaration if required */

main() /* Main function */

{ /* each declarations and statements are

separated by semi colon */

declarations

/* variables; arrays; records;

function declarations etc */

statements

}

function definitionsCompiler Directives

#include statements

– used to include the header file for

input/output stdio.h, the standard

mathematics library math.h etc.

– These files are enclosed within < >

#define

– helps in defining constant symbol. Example

#include <stdio.h>

#define i 6

main()

{ /* integer declaration */

int x, y;

/* Assignment statements */

x=7;

y= i + x;

/* output statement */

printf("%d\n", y);}Data Types

• Standard:

– int, float, char, double

• User defined datatypes:

– arrays,

– structures, pointers,

– enumerated datatype etc.Declaration

Form of Declaration:

type list of variables;

/* each separated by , and finally terminated by ; */

Examples:

• int x, y, z;

• float p, q[3][4];

array

• char name[20];

• char ch = ‘A’; /* character is enclosed within ‘ ’*/Arithmetic Expression

• An expression is a combination of variables,

constants and operators written according to the

syntax of C language.

• Every expression evaluates to a value of a

certain type that can be assigned to a variable.

Precedence in Arithmetic Operators

• An arithmetic expression without parenthesis will

be evaluated from left to right using the rules of

precedence of operators.

• There are two distinct priority levels of arithmetic

operators in C.

High priority * / %

Low priority + -Rules for evaluation of an expression

• When Parenthesis are used, the expressions

within parenthesis assume highest priority.

• Parenthesized sub expression left to right are

evaluated.

• If parenthesis are nested, the evaluation begins

with the innermost sub expression.

• The precedence rule is applied in determining

the order of application of operators in evaluating

sub expressions.

• The associability rule is applied when two or

more operators of the same precedence level

appear in the sub expression. Operator precedence and associativity

• Each operator in C has a precedence associated

with it.

• The precedence is used to determine how an

expression involving more than one operator is

evaluated.

• There are distinct levels of precedence and an

operator may belong to one of these levels.

• The operators of higher precedence are evaluated

first.

• The operators of same precedence are evaluated

from right to left or from left to right depending on

the level.

• This is known as associativity property of an

operator. Examples

x + y * z / 2 + p

x + (y * z) / 2 + p

x + ((y * z) / 2) + p

(x + ((y * z) / 2)) + p

((x + ((y * z) / 2)) + p)

x + y - z / 2 * p

(x + y) - z / 2 * p

(x + y) – (z / 2)* p




(x + y) – ((z / 2) * p)

((x + y) – ((z / 2) * p))Type conversions in expressions

Implicit type conversion

• C permits mixing of constants and variables of different

types in an expression.

• C automatically converts any intermediate values to the

proper type so that the expression can be evaluated

without loosing any significance.

• This automatic type conversion is know as implicit type

conversion

• During evaluation it adheres to very strict rules and type

conversion.

• If the operands are of different types the lower type is

automatically converted to the higher type before the

operation proceeds. The result is of higher type. Conversion rules

1. If one operand is long double, the other will be

converted to long double and result will be long

double.

2. If one operand is double, the other will be convertedto double and result will be double.

3. If one operand is float, the other will be converted to

float and result will be float.

4. If one of the operand is unsigned long int, the other

will be converted into unsigned long int and result

will be unsigned long int.

5. If one of the operand is long int, the other will be

converted to long int and the result will be long int.

6. If one operand is unsigned int the other will be

converted to unsigned int and the result will be

unsigned int. Explicit Conversion

• Many times there may arise a situation where

we want to force a type conversion in a way that

is different from automatic conversion.

• Consider for example the calculation of number

of female and male students in a class

female_students

Ratio = -------------------

male_students

• Since if female_students and male_students are

declared as integers, the decimal part will be

rounded off and its ratio will represent a wrong

figure. • This problem can be solved by converting locally

one of the variables to the floating point as

shown below.

Ratio = (float) female_students /

male_students

• The operator float converts the female_students

to floating point for the purpose of evaluation of

the expression.

• Then using the rule of automatic conversion, the

division is performed by floating point mode,

thus retaining the fractional part of the result.

• The process of such a local conversion is known

as explicit conversion or casting a value.

• The general form is (type_name) expression Arithmetic Expression

• x = x + 2 x += 2

• i = i +1 i++ or ++i

// the value of x is added with the value of i

after incrementing it by 1 then i is incremented by 1

x +(++i); x + (i++);

after decreasing it by 1 then i is decreased by 1.

x +(--i ); x = x +(i-- );Conditional Expression

exp ? exp1 : exp2

• An expression exp is evaluated and

– if the value is nonzero (or true -

represented by 1) then expression exp1

is the final value

– otherwise exp2 is the final value of

entire expression.Logical Operators

&& → AND

|| → OR

! → NOT

Relational Operators

== → equality

!= → Not equal to

< → less than

<= → less than equal to

> → greater than

>= → greater than equal to Bitwise operations

& → bitwise AND

| → bitwise inclusive OR

^ → bitwise exclusive OR

<< → left shift

>> → right shift

~ → One's complementBasic Statements

• Assignment statement

x = expression;

• Compound statement

{s1; s2;…. };

– Collection of statements, each separated

by semi colon and enclosed in brackets

• Multiple lines comments are enclosed within

/* comments */

• Single line comment can be preceded by //Conditional statements

• if (cond) statement;

• if (cond) s1 else s2;

– Here cond is a boolean condition

which can have non zero value

representing true and 0 representing

false.

– Statement may be simple or compund.For statement

for (i = m1; i <= m2; i+=m3)

{ body };

– Here m1 : initial value;

m2 : maximum value of I

m3 : increment (positive or negative)

• body Æ sequence of statements.Loop statements

• While statement

while (cond)

{ body };

• Do-while statement

do

{body }

while cond;Switch statement

switch (exp)

{ case v1 : s1 ; break;

case v2 : s2 ; break;

case vn : sn ; break;

default : s optional

}

– If the value of exp is vj then sj is executed and

switch statement is exited using break

statement.

– Execution always starts from 1 to last.Input/Output statement

/* reads single character and stores in

character variable x */

x = getchar();

/* prints single character stored in x*/

putchar(x);

/* the following functions are in standard file

named stdio.h */

scanf(control, v1, v2, ..);

printf(control, e1,e2,...);

• Control in input/output

control = "seq of format descriptor“Format descriptor

Description Meaning

%d a decimal integer

%o a octal integer

%x a hexadecimal integer

%c a single character

%s a character string

%f a decimal number (float

or double)

\n skip to new lineExamples:

• printf("%4d%7.2f\n%c\n", x, y, z)

• printf(“%c %d %f”, ch, i, x);

• scanf("%4d%8.2f \n", &x, &y)

• scanf(“%c %d %f”, &ch, &i, &x);

– Here & represents memory addressesArrays

• Single dimensional Array

– Arrays in C are defined as:

int numbers[50];

– In C Array subscripts start at 0 and end

one less than the array size whereas in

other languages like fortran, pascal it

starts from 1.

– For example, in the above case valid

subscripts range from 0 to 49.

– Elements can be accessed in the

following ways:-

numbers[2] = 100; x = numbers[2];• Multi-dimensional arrays can be

defined as follows:

int x[50][50]; // for two dimensions

• X is an array with 50 rows and 50

columns

• Elements can be accessed in the

following ways:

y=x[2][3];

• For further dimensions simply add

more [ ]:

int x[50][50][40][30]......[50];Strings

• In C, Strings are defined as arrays of

characters.

– For example, the following defines a

string of 50 characters: char name[50];

• C has no string handling facilities built

in and so the following assignments

are illegal:

char fn[10],ln[10],fulln[20];

fn= "Arnold";

ln= "Schwarznegger";

fulln= "Mr"+fn +ln;• However, there is a special library of

string handling routines <string.h>

which may be included in header file

and then various string operations can

be used.

• String is enclosed in “ “.

– Printf(“Well done”);’

• To print a string we use printf with a

special %s control character:

printf(``%s'',name);

– NOTE: We just need to give the name of the

string. • In order to allow variable length

strings the 0 character is used to

indicate the end of a string.

• So if we have a following declaration

char name[50];

• Initialization can be done at the

declaration time as follows:

char name[50] = “DAVE”;

• The contents will look like: String Handling Functions

• Include <string.h> as a header file. The

following functions are available for use.

• Concatenate two strings: strcat(s1, s2)

• Compare two strings : strcmp(s1, s2)

• Length of string : strlen(s)

• Copy one string over other: strcpy(s1, s2)

– Here contents of s2 are copied to s1

• Locating substring: strstr(s1,s2)

– Gives the position of s1 in s2Structure in C

• A structure in C is a collection of items

of different types.

• The main use of structures is to

conveniently treat such collection as a

unit.

• For example:

struct employee

{ char name[50];

char sex;

float salary;

};• The following declaration defines a

variable xyz of struct type.

struct empolyee xyz;

• Variables can also be declared

between } and ; of a struct

declaration, i.e.:

struct employee

{ char name[50];

char sex;

float salary;

} xyz;• struct variable can be pre-initialized at

declaration:

struct employee

{ char name[50];

char sex;

float salary;

} xyz = {"john", ’m’, 20000.50};

• To access a member (or field) of a

struct, C provides dot (.) operator.

• For example,

– xyz . sex ; xyz . salary; xyz . name User Defined Data Types

• Enumerated Types

– It contains a list of constants that can be

addressed in integer values.

• We can declare types as follows.

enum days {MONDAY, TUESDAY, ...,

SUNDAY};

• Variables of enumerated type are defined

as follows:

enum days week1, week2;

where week1 and week2 are variablesPossible uses of enumerated constants

• Enumerated constants can be assigned

to variable of that type

week1 = MONDAY;

• Conditional expression can be formed

If (week1 == week2) ….

if (week1 != TUESDAY) …

• Can be used in switch or for statement.• Similar to arrays, first enumerated name

has index value 0.

– So MONDAY has value 0,

– TUESDAY value1, and so on.

• We can also override the 0 start value as

follows:

enum months {JAN = 1, FEB, MAR, ..., DEC};

– Here it is implied that FEB = 2 and so on

enum colors {RED, BLUE, GREEN=5, WHITE,

PINK=9};

– Here RED=1, BLUE=2, GREEN=5, WHITE=6,

PINK=9#include <stdio.h>main()
{
enum Color {RED=5, YELLOW, GREEN=4,
BLUE};
printf("RED = %d\n", RED);
printf("YELLOW = %d\n", YELLOW);
printf("GREEN = %d\n", GREEN);
printf("BLUE = %d\n", BLUE);
}
Output:
RED = 5
YELLOW = 6
GREEN = 4
BLUE = 5 Type Definitions
• We can give a name to enum colors as COLOR
by using typedef as follows:
typedef enum colors COLOR;
COLOR x, y, z;
x = RED;
y = BLUE;
• Now, every time the compiler sees COLOR, it'll
know that you mean enum colors.
• We can also define user named data type for
even existing primitive types:
typedef int integer;
typedef bool boolean; • typedef can also be used with structures to
creates a new type.
• Example:
typedef struct employee
{ char name[50];
char sex;
float salary;
} emp_type xyz ={"john", ’m’, 2000.50};
• emp_type is new data type of struct employee
type and can be initialized as usual:
• It can be now used for declaring variables similar
to primitive data types are used.• Examples:
emp_type x, y, z
– Here x, y and z are variables of type
emp_type which are structures themselves.
emp_type emp[100];
– Here emp is an array of 100 elements with
each element of type emp_type.
• Both declarations given below are same.
struct employee x, y, z;
emp_type x, y, z;Unions
• A union is an object similar to a structure except
that all of its members start at the same location
in memory.
• A union variable can represent the value of only
one of its members at a time.
• So an union is a variable which may hold (at
different times) objects of different sizes and
types.
• Example:
union number
{ short shortnumber;
long longnumber;
double floatnumber;
} anumber• It defines a union called number and an
instance of it called anumber.
• Members can be accessed in the following
way:
printf("%d\n",anumber.longnumber);
• This clearly displays the value of
longnumber.
• When C compiler is allocating memory for
unions, it will always reserve enough room
for the largest member
– (in the above example this is 8 bytes for the
double). • Example:
union u_t
{ char a;
short b;
int c;
};
union u_t x;
x.a = ‘B’;
printf("%c\n", x.a);
Output is: B • In order that the program can keep track of
the type of union variable being used, it is
embedded in a structure and a variable
which flags the union type.
• For example:
typedef struct { int maxpassengers; } jet;
typedef struct { int liftcapacity;} helicopter;
typedef struct { int maxpayload; } cargoplane;
typedef union
{ jet j; helicopter h; cargoplane c; } aircraft;
typedef struct
{ aircrafttype kind; int speed;
aircraft description; } an_aircraft;Function
• C provides functions which are again
similar in most languages.
• One difference is that C regards main()
as a function.
• The form of a C function is as follows:
type fun_name(parameter along with type)
{ local declarations;
body;
}
• type : is the type of value returned by the
function and can be basic type or user
defined. • return statement is used in the body of a
function to pass the result back to the
calling program.
• Example: Write function to find the
average of two integers:
float findaverage(float a, float b)
{ float average;
average=(a+b)/2;
return(average);
}
• We would call the function as follows:
result=findaverage(6,23);#include <stdio.h>
main()
{ int i, x;
int power (x, n); function declaration
for (i =0; i < 10; ++i)
{ x = power(2, i);
printf("%d%d\n", i, x); }
}
int power(int x, n) function definition
{ int i, p;
p = 1;
for (i =1; i <=n; i++) p = p*x;
return (p); }void functions
• The void function provides a way of not
returning any value through function name
• Here return statement is not used:
void squares()
{ int i;
for (i=1;i<10;i++);
printf("%d\n",i*i);
}
• In the main function we call it as follows:
main( )
{ squares( ); }Parameter Passing
• Default parameter passing is by value.
– The values of actual parameters are copied in
formal parameters.
– The change is not visible in the calling program.
main()
{ int i, x, y,s;
int sqsum (a,b);
x = 5; y = 7;
s = sqsum(x,y);
printf("%d%d%d\n“
, x,y,s); }
int sqsum(int a, b)
{ int sum;
a=a*a; b= b*b;
sum = a + b;
return(sum);
}• Another mechanism is to call by reference.
• It can be achieved by passing addresses of
actual parameters to formal parameters.
• For such case variables in formal parameter list
are represented as pointers.
• For writing functions where call by reference is
to be achieved then Void type is used.
• In this case the function will not returning any
value.
• Note that return statement is not.
• Changes to formal parameters will be visible in
actual parameters of calling program.Example:
void swap (int *p,*q) call by reference
{ int t;
t = *p;
*p = *q;
*q = t;
}
• Corresponding call statement
x = 4;
y = 5;
swap(&x, &y); addresses are passedFunctions and Arrays
• Single dimensional arrays can be passed to
functions as follows:
float findaverage(int size,float list[])
{ int i;
float sum=0.0;
for (i=0; i<size; i++) sum+=list[i];
return(sum/size);
}
• Here the declaration float list[] tells C compiler
that list is an array of float type.
• It should be noted that dimension of array is not
specified when it is a parameter of a function. • Multi-dimensional arrays can be passed to
functions as follows:
void printtable(int xsize,int ysize, float table[][5])
{ int x,y;
for (x=0; x<xsize; x++)
{ for (y=0; y<ysize;y++)
printf(“\t%f”,table[x][y]);
printf(“\n”);
}
}
• Here float table[][5] tells C compiler that table is
an array of dimension N X 5 of float.
• Note we must specify the second (and
subsequent) dimension of the array BUT not the
first dimension.

C-LANGUAGE NOTES

C-LANGUAGE NOTES

Some words about Computer Programming languages

Naturally a language is the source of communication between two persons, and also between person to machine like computer. The languages we can use to communicatewith the computer are known as Computer programming languages.
Generally there are two major types of languages are available are as follows:1.

Low level languages

2.The set of commands available in low level is complex and not easy tounderstandable. In this category " Assembly " and " machine codes " areavailable. Assembly programs are faster than other high-level language programs.3.

High level languages

The set of commands available in high level language is very simple and easy

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1.Procedure Oriented language

2.In this category we are able to create our project or programs using proceduralapproach means in this type we can able to divide our big project/program intosmall subroutines or procedures. After making procedures we can able to call a‘procedure’ one or more places.The lists of procedural languages are as follows:C languageC++ (Object Oriented)Java (Objected Oriented)Smalltalk (Objected Oriented)Pascal language3.

Non-Procedural Languages:

This category also known as ‘Problem Orientedlanguages’. In this type of languages we can able to make program only atspecific range like database. The followings are the examples of Non procedural languages

1.SQL (Structured Query Language)

2.SNOBOL (String processor)

C LanguageHistory

• Developed at Bell Laboratories. first standard version release in 1972.
  
  Developed by Dennis Richee.
  Before c a Programming language is very popular in those days the name of thelanguage is B-Language so the developers decided the name of ‘C’ language because C is next to B.
  The Integrated Development Environment (IDE):
  
  Turbo c features as integrated Development environment, or IDE,. It is also referred to asthe programmer’s platform.) in IDE you can able to write/save/open your programs or code, compile using short cut keys, and also perform code debugging very easily.
  
  IDE
  Common Short cut Keys DescriptionF2 press to Save current work
  F3 press to open an existing file
  ALT-F3 press to close current
  ALT-F9 press to compile only
  ALT-F5 press to view the desired output of the program.
  CTRL-F9 press to compile+run
  ALT-X or ALT-F-X press to exit from TC IDE
  
  
  
  C Programs Skeleton (General) <Preprocessor Directives (some time necessary)>
  <Macros Definition (optional)>
  <function declaration>
  
  
  < Global Variable (on your demand)>
  
  
  main () (Necessary)
  
  
  { statements }
  
  
  < function definition>
  
  
  { }
  
  
  
  

• Remember Some common rules for writing C program
• 
  

Use all commands or statements in lower or small case.

• After completion of a statement excluding main() or loops must insert
  (semicolon) as a statement terminator.
  Don’t use/declare identifier or variable name same as statement name suppose
  int include; this is a wrong statement because include has a special meaning in thelanguage.
  
  Header Files or Preprocessor Directives contains references or links of library functions. That is built-in in the C language.
  
  Suppose if you want to use a function clrscr() ; in the main function so must bedeclared on top # include <conio.h> other wise you could have an prototype error.
  
  Some header files are as followsStdio.h
  Conio.h
  Dos.h
  String.h
  Stdlib.h
  
  And many more header files are available in C…
  
  
  void main(void)
  
  Every C programs consists of one or more functions. No matter how manyfunctions there are in a C program , main is the one to which control is passedfrom the operating system when the program is run ; it is the first function
  
  
  
  executed. The word "void" preceding "main" specifies that the function main()will not return a value. The second "void," in parenthesis , specifies that thefunction takes no arguments.

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offline installer for facebook messenger

I have faced some problems while installing Facebook messenger (through online installer) on slow internet connection like using internet through a mobile phone. To avoid this, I started research on getting Offline Installer for Facebook Messenger and finally I found solution for it.

Well, This is official Facebook Messenger, but you don't need to install / download it online.

This Installer package consist of the messenger's files that are created by Online installer. These files are re-combined to create this Offline-Installer.

This Offline Installer also consist of Video Call Plugin for video calling through Facebook.

This Installer is too much easy to install, just a single click and you will be all done.

You can Download Offline Installer for Facebook Messenger

by clicking this link.